The Effects of Positive Versus Negative Self-Talk on Vertical Jump in Soccer Players: The Moderating Role of Need for Cognition.

The current study analyzed the effects of positive versus negative self-talk on physical performance in soccer players from a multiprocess approach. We operationalized the process distinction using the need-for-cognition (NC) construct. Thus, NC was measured and self-talk (i.e., positive vs. negative) was manipulated between participants (i.e., 126 soccer players, age 18 years or older, who were competing in national, regional, or local competitions). Physical performance was assessed by a vertical-jump test. According to hypothesis, regression analyses indicated that positive versus negative self-talk influenced physical performance to a greater extent for high-NC individuals than for low-NC individuals. Specifically, among high-NC soccer players, relative to baseline, positive self-talk produced greater physical performance in the vertical-jump test than negative self-talk. In contrast, among low-NC soccer players, no difference was found between positive and negative self-talk on physical performance. These results supported the moderating role of NC.

Changing Attitudes About a Pro-Environmental Proposal Concerning Solar Power: The Self-Validating Role of Ingroup Versus Outgroup Sources.

BACKGROUND: In this study, we examined whether a persuasive message in favor of a pro-environmental proposal could influence attitude change through a self-validation process when individuals were told that the source of the proposal belonged to their ingroup (vs. their outgroup). METHOD: Participants read a message that advocated for the use of solar power. Immediately following the message, participants were asked to list their thoughts regarding the persuasive proposal. A thought favorability index was created for each participant. Following the thought-listing task, participants received the experimental manipulation (i.e., ingroup vs. outgroup source) based on the minimal group paradigm, after which they reported their attitudes towards the proposal. RESULTS: A regression analysis showed the predicted interaction between thought favorability and type of source (i.e., ingroup vs. outgroup) on attitudes towards the solar power proposal. According to our expectations, thought favorability was a better predictor of attitudes for participants in the ingroup (vs. outgroup) source condition. CONCLUSIONS: Attitudes can be polarized as a function of ingroup versus outgroup differentiation through a self-validation process.

The interplay between self-talk and body posture on physical performance: Analyzing a moderated serial multiple mediation model.

Prior research has shown that non-verbal behavior (e.g., overt head movements) can moderate the effects of positive and negative self-talk on physical performance. In the current studies, we aimed to extend existing research on self-talk by examining a different non-verbal behavior (i.e., body posture), as well as specifying some conditions under which body posture can interact with self-talk on physical performance from the Self-Validation Theory perspective. Most importantly, we proposed and tested a moderated serial multiple mediation model. In Studies 1 and 2, self-talk (i.e., positive vs. negative) and body posture (i.e., upright vs. slumped) were manipulated between participants. In Study 1, soccer players performed slalom and dribbling tests. In Study 2, athletes performed a push-up test. We hypothesized and found that positive (vs. negative) self-talk influenced physical performance to a greater extent for participants in the upright posture (i.e., validating) condition than for participants in the slumped posture (i.e., invalidating) condition. Furthermore, Study 3 was designed to analyze a moderated serial multiple mediation model. In this third study, self-talk was positive, body posture was manipulated, and the meaning of body posture was measured as a moderator. Results supported the proposed model, identifying the perceived validity of self-statements (i.e., the self-validation mechanism) and self-efficacy as serial mediators. That is, the meaning (i.e., validity-invalidity) moderated the effects of body posture on athletes' physical performance in a pull-up test, through the indirect effects of the perceived validity of self-statements and self-efficacy. Implications for self-talk research and application are discussed.

Changing Attitudes About a Pro-Environmental Proposal Concerning Solar Power: The Self-Validating Role of Ingroup Versus Outgroup / Cambio de Actitudes Hacia una Propuesta Pro-ambiental Sobre Energía Solar: el Rol de Auto-Validación de Emisores del Endogrupo Versus Exogrupo

Background: In this study, we examined whether a persuasive message in favor of a pro-environmental proposal could influence attitude change through a self-validation process when individuals were told that the source of the proposal belonged to their ingroup (vs. their outgroup). Method: Participants read a message that advocated for the use of solar power. Immediately following the message, participants were asked to list their thoughts regarding the persuasive proposal. A thought favorability index was created for each participant. Following the thought-listing task, participants received the experimental manipulation (i.e., ingroup vs. outgroup source) based on the minimal group paradigm, after which they reported their attitudes towards the proposal. Results: A regression analysis showed the predicted interaction between thought favorability and type of source (i.e., ingroup vs. outgroup) on attitudes towards the solar power proposal. According to our expectations, thought favorability was a better predictor of attitudes for participants in the ingroup (vs. outgroup) source condition. Conclusions: Attitudes can be polarized as a function of ingroup versus outgroup differentiation through a self-validation process.(AU)

Antecedentes: En la presente investigación, examinamos si un mensaje persuasivo a favor de una propuesta pro-ambiental puede influir en el cambio de actitudes a través de un proceso de auto-validación cuando a los participantes se les dice que el emisor de la propuesta pertenece a su endogrupo (vs. su exogrupo). Método: Los participantes leyeron un mensaje que abogaba por el uso de la energía solar. Inmediatamente después del mensaje, se pidió a los participantes que listaran sus pensamientos con respecto a la propuesta persuasiva. Se creó un índice de favorabilidad de los pensamientos para cada participante. Después de esta tarea, los participantes recibieron la manipulación experimental (i.e., emisor del endogrupo vs. exogrupo) basada en el paradigma del grupo mínimo. Finalmente, informaron de sus actitudes hacia la propuesta. Resultados: Un análisis de regresión mostró la interacción esperada entre la favorabilidad del pensamiento y el tipo de emisor (endogrupo vs. exogrupo) sobre las actitudes hacia el uso de energía solar. Como se hipotetizó, la favorabilidad del pensamiento fue un mejor predictor de las actitudes para los participantes en la condición de endogrupo (vs. exogrupo). Conclusiones: Las actitudes pueden polarizarse en función de la diferenciación entre endogrupo y exogrupo mediante un proceso de auto-validación.(AU)

Mental, physical, and phychophysiological responses to FFP2/N95 face mask during HIIT in active women.

Training systems based on high-intensity interval training (HIIT) have experienced great influence in recent years within the context of exercise and sport. This study aims to provide insight on whether the immediate outcomes (e.g., central and peripheral acute responses) may be intensified or attenuated when a HIIT protocol is performed using a FFP2/N95 face mask in active healthy adult women. In other words, it strives to provide new findings relative to the use of face masks as a potential performance enhancing tool. In the current study, the same training session was carried out on two occasions under different conditions (i.e., with FFP2/N95 and without FFP2/N95) in a cross-over experimental design. The following study variables were assessed before and after the HIIT in both sessions: Lactate, cortisol, alpha-amylase, selective attention, countermovement jump (CMJ), and power output. Additionally, central and peripheral Rates of Perceived Exertion (RPE) were assessed before and during the HIIT. This study makes novel contributions to prior research, showing that the use of FFP2/N95 face mask (vs. no mask) yielded higher alpha-amylase, selective attention, and peripheral RPE scores. No significant differences were found for lactate, cortisol, CMJ, and power output. Interestingly, central RPE scores were significantly lower under FFP2/N95 face mask (vs. no mask) condition. The main suggestion in light of these results is that researchers and practitioners should consider potential peripheral and central responses to training stimuli when using FFP2/N95 face masks.

Spanish Adaptation of the Need for Affect Questionnaire (NAQ and NAQ-S).

BACKGROUND: Need for affect (NA) refers to individual differences in the motivation to approach or avoid emotion-inducing situations and activities. Prior research has demonstrated that NA is a relevant construct for understanding psychological processes related to affect. The present study aimed to adapt and validate the English version of the Need for Affect Questionnaire (NAQ), as well as the short version (i.e., the NAQ-S), to Spanish. We examined evidence of validity and reliability in the NAQ and NAQ-S scores. METHOD: Study 1 ( N = 416) analyzed the psychometric properties of scores from the Spanish adaptation of the NAQ, as well as the relationships with measures of other relevant psychological constructs. Study 2 ( N = 118) tested the validity and reliability of scores from the Spanish adaptation of the NAQ-S. RESULTS: We found two main factors (i.e., Emotion Approach and Emotion Avoidance), and the internal consistency of both the NAQ and the NAQ-S scores, as well as their test-retest reliability, were adequate. Relationships with other measures were in line with prior research, providing positive evidence of concurrent validity. CONCLUSIONS: Scores from both instruments showed validity and reliability, so should be considered in future research related to NA.

Influence of Exogenous Factors Related to Nutritional and Hydration Strategies and Environmental Conditions on Fatigue in Endurance Sports: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis.

The aim of this systematic review with meta-analysis was to examine the influence of exogenous factors related to nutritional and hydration strategies and environmental conditions, as modulators of fatigue, including factors associated with performance fatigability and perceived fatigability, in endurance tests lasting 45 min to 3 h. A search was carried out using four databases: PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, and EBSCO. A total of 5103 articles were screened, with 34 included in the meta-analysis. The review was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42022327203) and adhered to the PRISMA guidelines. The study quality was evaluated according to the PEDro score and assessed using Rosenthal's fail-safe N. Carbohydrate (CHO) intake increased the time to exhaustion (p < 0.001) and decreased the heart rate (HR) during the test (p = 0.018). Carbohydrate with protein intake (CHO + PROT) increased lactate during the test (p = 0.039). With respect to hydration, dehydrated individuals showed a higher rate of perceived exertion (RPE) (p = 0.016) and had a higher body mass loss (p = 0.018). In hot conditions, athletes showed significant increases in RPE (p < 0.001), HR (p < 0.001), and skin temperature (p = 0.002), and a decrease in the temperature gradient (p < 0.001) after the test. No differences were found when athletes were subjected to altitude or cold conditions. In conclusion, the results revealed that exogenous factors, such as nutritional and hydration strategies, as well as environmental conditions, affected fatigue in endurance sports, including factors associated with performance fatigability and perceived fatigability.

Spanish Adaptation of the Need for Affect Questionnaire (NAQ and NAQ-S) / Adaptación Española del Cuestionario de Necesidad de Afecto (NAQ y NAQ-S)

Background: Need for affect (NA) refers to individual differences in the motivation to approach or avoid emotion-inducing situations and activities. Prior research has demonstrated that NA is a relevant construct for understanding psychological processes related to affect. The present study aimed to adapt and validate the English version of the Need for Affect Questionnaire (NAQ), as well as the short version (i.e., the NAQ-S), to Spanish. We examined evidence of validity and reliability in the NAQ and NAQ-S scores. Method: Study 1 (N = 416) analyzed the psychometric properties of scores from the Spanish adaptation of the NAQ, as well as the relationships with measures of other relevant psychological constructs. Study 2 (N = 118) tested the validity and reliability of scores from the Spanish adaptation of the NAQ-S. Results: We found two main factors (i.e., Emotion Approach and Emotion Avoidance), and the internal consistency of both the NAQ and the NAQ-S scores, as well as their test-retest reliability, were adequate. Relationships with other measures were in line with prior research, providing positive evidence of concurrent validity. Conclusions: Scores from both instruments showed validity and reliability, so should be considered in future research related to NA.(AU)

Antecedentes: La necesidad de afecto (NA) se refiere a las diferencias individuales en la motivación para buscar o evitar situaciones y actividades que inducen emoción. La investigación previa ha demostrado que la NA es un constructo relevante para entender procesos psicológicos relacionados con el afecto. La presente investigación adaptó al castellano el cuestionario de necesidad de afecto (NAQ), así como su versión breve (NAQ-S). Por tanto, examinamos las evidencias de validez y fiabilidad de las puntuaciones en ambos cuestionarios. Método: En el Estudio 1 (N = 416), exploramos las propiedades psicométricas de las puntuaciones en la adaptación del NAQ, así como las relaciones con medidas de otros constructos psicológicos relevantes. En el Estudio 2 (N = 118), analizamos la fiabilidad y la validez de las puntuaciones en la adaptación del NAQ-S. Resultados: Se encontraron dos factores (i.e., Aproximación a la Emoción y Evitación de la Emoción) y la consistencia interna, así como la fiabilidad test-retest, de las puntuaciones en ambos cuestionarios fueron adecuadas. Las relaciones con otras medidas proporcionaron evidencia positiva de la validez concurrente. Conclusiones: Las puntuaciones obtenidas en ambos cuestionarios mostraron validez y fiabilidad, por lo que deberían ser considerados en la investigación futura relacionada con la NA.(AU)

The meta-cognitive role of thought morality in attitude change and behavioural intentions related to doping.

Prior research has examined the relationships between morality, attitudes, and intentions related to doping predominantly via correlational studies based on the theoretical frameworks provided by extensions to the theory of planned behaviour, and the social cognitive theory of moral thought and action. In contrast, the present study experimentally analysed a psychological process (i.e., self-validation) through which thought morality can influence attitudes and intentions. Two hundred and forty-two participants (122 males and 120 females) were randomly assigned to read a message either against or in favour of legalising several doping behaviours in sports, then listed their thoughts regarding that proposal. Next, they were randomly assigned to perceive their thoughts as either moral or immoral, then indicated the extent to which they considered their thoughts as valid. Finally, participants reported their attitudes and intentions regarding the legalisation proposal. As hypothesised, the anti-legalisation (vs. pro-legalisation) message produced more unfavourable thoughts and attitudes, as well as lower intentions to support the legalisation proposal and engage in banned behaviours if legalised in sport. Most importantly, the effects of message direction on attitudes and intentions were greater for participants in the moral (vs. immoral) thought condition. Furthermore, changes in attitudes were consistent with a self-validation process.

Polarization of Attitudes as a Function of Mortality Salience: A Meta-Cognitive Analysis.

BACKGROUND: The present study analyzes how attitudes can polarize after reminders of death in the context of persuasion, and proposes that a meta-cognitive process (i.e., self-validation) can serve as a compensatory coping mechanism to deal with mortality salience. METHOD: Participants were first asked to read either a strong or a weak resume of a job applicant. Next, they listed their initial thoughts about that applicant. Then, they were asked to think about of their own death (i.e., mortality salience condition) versus being asked to think about of being cold (i.e., control condition). Finally, participants reported the confidence in their thoughts, as well as their attitudes towards the applicant. RESULTS: Participants who were assigned to the mortality salience (vs. control) condition showed greater impact of their previously generated thoughts on their subsequent attitudes. Additionally, as hypothesized, this effect of attitude polarization was mediated by changes in thought confidence. CONCLUSIONS: Attitudes unrelated to mortality can be polarized by reminders of death and this effect can operate through a meta-cognitive process of thought validation. Implications for persuasion, self-validation, and beyond are discussed.

Polarization of Attitudes as a Function of Mortality Salience: A Meta-Cognitive Analysis / Polarización de las Actitudes Como Resultado de Hacer Saliente la Mortalidad: un Análisis Meta-Cognitivo

Background: The present study analyzes how attitudes can polarize afterreminders of death in the context of persuasion, and proposes that a meta-cognitive process (i.e., self-validation) can serve as a compensatory copingmechanism to deal with mortality salience. Method: Participants were firstasked to read either a strong or a weak resume of a job applicant. Next,they listed their initial thoughts about that applicant. Then, they were askedto think about of their own death (i.e., mortality salience condition) versusbeing asked to think about of being cold (i.e., control condition). Finally,participants reported the confidence in their thoughts, as well as theirattitudes towards the applicant. Results: Participants who were assigned tothe mortality salience (vs. control) condition showed greater impact of theirpreviously generated thoughts on their subsequent attitudes. Additionally,as hypothesized, this effect of attitude polarization was mediated by changesin thought confidence. Conclusions: Attitudes unrelated to mortality canbe polarized by reminders of death and this effect can operate through ameta-cognitive process of thought validation. Implications for persuasion,self-validation, and beyond are discussed.

Antecedentes: la presenteinvestigación analiza cómo las actitudes se polarizan como resultado dehacer saliente la mortalidad en el contexto de la persuasión y propone queun proceso meta-cognitivo (i.e., la auto-validación) puede servir comoun mecanismo compensatorio de afrontamiento ante la idea de la muerte.Método: los participantes fueron asignados aleatoriamente a leer uncurrículum que incluía información muy convincente o información pococonvincente sobre un candidato a un puesto de trabajo. A continuación, escribieron los pensamientos que tuvieron sobre el candidato. Después, realizaron una tarea que implicó pensar en la idea de su propia muerte (i.e.,condición de mortalidad) o pensar en la idea de tener frío (i.e., condiciónde control). Finalmente, los participantes informaron de la confianza que tuvieron en sus pensamientos, así como de las actitudes que se formaron hacia el candidato. Resultados: los participantes de la condición demortalidad (vs. control) mostraron un mayor impacto de sus pensamientosiniciales sobre sus actitudes. Además, este efecto de polarización fuemediado por la confianza en los pensamientos. Conclusiones: las actitudesno relacionadas con la mortalidad pueden polarizarse al hacer salientela mortalidad y este efecto puede ocurrir a través de un proceso meta-cognitivo de validación del pensamiento.

Meta-Analytic Use of Balanced Identity Theory to Validate the Implicit Association Test.

This meta-analysis evaluated theoretical predictions from balanced identity theory (BIT) and evaluated the validity of zero points of Implicit Association Test (IAT) and self-report measures used to test these predictions. Twenty-one researchers contributed individual subject data from 36 experiments (total N = 12,773) that used both explicit and implicit measures of the social-cognitive constructs. The meta-analysis confirmed predictions of BIT's balance-congruity principle and simultaneously validated interpretation of the IAT's zero point as indicating absence of preference between two attitude objects. Statistical power afforded by the sample size enabled the first confirmations of balance-congruity predictions with self-report measures. Beyond these empirical results, the meta-analysis introduced a within-study statistical test of the balance-congruity principle, finding that it had greater efficiency than the previous best method. The meta-analysis's full data set has been publicly archived to enable further studies of interrelations among attitudes, stereotypes, and identities.

A meta-cognitive approach to doping in sports: The effects of thought validation on attitudes related to doping.

To better understand doping-related attitude change, it is important to consider not only the amount of thinking (i.e., elaboration) done by message recipients, but also the favourability of their thoughts in response to the proposal, as well as the perceived validity in their thoughts. The main goal of the present study was to analyse the effects of a meta-cognitive process (i.e., thought validation) on attitudes related to doping. Thus, we randomly assigned participants to read a message either against or in favour of legalising several doping behaviours. Participants listed their thoughts regarding the proposal and indicated the perceived validity in their thoughts, then reported their attitudes. As hypothesised, the message against legalisation elicited more unfavourable thoughts and attitudes than the message in favour of legalisation. Most relevantly, the effects of the message direction on attitudes were greater for participants with higher (vs. lower) levels of thought validity. Furthermore, consistent with the thought validation process, results revealed that thought favourability was a better predictor of attitudes for participants with higher (vs. lower) perceived thought validity, indicating that perceiving one's thoughts as valid plays an important role in persuasion. These findings provide novel insights for research and interventions regarding doping in sports.

Changing attitudes and intentions related to doping: An analysis of individual differences in need for cognition.

Research has shown that athletes' attitudes towards the use of banned performance-enhancing substances are reliable predictors of their intentions to use these substances, which in turn can be relevant predictors of their actual doping behaviours. Despite the important role played by attitudes and intentions in doping, research analysing how to change those attitudes and intentions is relatively scarce. The present study examined how individual differences in Need for Cognition (NC, Cacioppo & Petty, 1982) influenced doping-related attitude change and subsequent behavioural intentions. Participants were randomly assigned to read a persuasive message either against or in favour of legalising the use of several banned substances, including anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) and Erythropoietin (EPO). In addition, participants completed the NC scale, and finally reported their attitudes and behavioural intentions regarding the legalisation proposal. As hypothesised, results showed that participants who received an anti-legalisation message had significantly more unfavourable attitudes towards the proposal than participants who received a pro-legalisation message, regardless of NC. However, as predicted, NC moderated the relationship between individuals' attitudes and their intentions. That is, high-NC participants showed greater attitude-intention correspondence than low-NC participants.

The Effects of Overt Head Movements on Physical Performance After Positive Versus Negative Self-Talk.

Research on self-talk has found that what athletes say to themselves influences their performance in sport settings. This experiment analyzed the relationship between positive and negative self-talk and physical performance in light of another variable: overt head movements. Participants were randomly assigned to first generate and then listen to either positive or negative self-statements. They were then randomly assigned to nod (up and down) or to shake (side to side) their heads while being exposed to the self-statements they had previously generated. Finally, physical performance was assessed using a vertical-jump task, a squat test, and a deadlift task. As expected, positive self-statements led to better performance than negative self-statements in 2 out of 3 physical tasks. Most relevant, the main effect of self-talk was significantly qualified by head movements. Consistent with the authors' hypothesis, athletes' self-statements were significantly more impactful on physical performance in the head-nodding condition than in the head-shaking condition.

Where Did This Thought Come From? A Self-Validation Analysis of the Perceived Origin of Thoughts.

Three experiments examined whether perceiving thoughts as coming from internal versus external origins are more impactful on attitudes. Participants generated either positive or negative thoughts about different attitude objects, including different diets, and plastic surgery. Then, participants were induced to think that their thoughts came from the self or from an external source. In Experiment 1, participants induced to believe their thoughts originated from the self versus an external source relied on them more to form their attitudes. Experiment 2 demonstrated that when the external origin was associated with properties of validity, people relied on their thoughts more than when thoughts were perceived to come from an internal origin associated with low validity. Experiment 3 showed that the impact of thought origin on evaluations was mediated by greater liking for one's thoughts when they originated in the self.

The Effects of Elaboration on the Strength of Doping-Related Attitudes: Resistance to Change and Behavioral Intentions.

This experiment analyzed whether attitudes toward the legalization of several doping behaviors would resist change and predict behavioral intentions when they were initially formed through thoughtful (i.e., high elaboration) versus nonthoughtful (i.e., low elaboration) processes. Participants were randomly assigned first to a persuasive message either against or in favor of the legalization, which they read with relatively high or low degrees of deliberative thinking. Attitudes and intentions regarding legalization were assessed following that message. Next, each participant received a second message that was opposed to the first one, serving as an attack against the attitude that participants had just formed. Finally, attitudes were again assessed. As hypothesized, participants showed greater attitude-consistent intentions when they formed their initial attitudes through thoughtful (vs. nonthoughtful) consideration of the first message. Moreover, the second message resulted in greater resistance to attitude change when participants formed their initial attitudes through thoughtful (vs. nonthoughtful) processes.

La convicción en las actitudes relacionadas con el dopaje: Un estudio experimental con entrenadores de fútbol / Conviction in attitudes related to doping: an experimental study with football coaches / A convicção das attitudes relacionadas com o doping um estudo experimental com teinadores de futebol

Este experimento analizó el efecto que el pensamiento deliberativo involucrado en el procesamiento de información relevante produjo sobre la convicción de los participantes en sus actitudes relacionadas con el dopaje. Los participantes fueron entrenadores de fútbol que recibieron por escrito una propuesta (i.e., un mensaje persuasivo) en contra (o a favor) de la legalización de algunas sustancias y conductas consideradas como dopaje en la actualidad. A su vez, la cantidad de pensamiento deliberativo (i.e., la probabilidad de elaboración, alta vs. baja) fue manipulada entre los participantes. Finalmente, las actitudes hacia la propuesta de legalización y la convicción en esas actitudes fueron medidas como variables dependientes. Como se predijo, los resultados mostraron que las actitudes fueron significativamente influidas sólo por la dirección del mensaje persuasivo (η 2 = .064); de tal forma que los entrenadores que recibieron el mensaje en contra de la legalización mostraron actitudes más desfavorables que los que recibieron el mensaje a favor. Sin embargo, como se esperaba, la convicción en las actitudes estuvo sólo en función de la elaboración (η 2 = .050). Así, los entrenadores de la condición de alta probabilidad de elaboración mostraron más convicción en sus actitudes que los de la condición de baja probabilidad de elaboración. En este artículo, discutimos la importancia de esta convicción para comprender y predecir mejor el impacto que las actitudes tienen sobre los consecuentes modos de pensar y de actuar de entrenadores y deportistas respecto al dopaje

This experiment analyzed the effect that deliberative thinking involved in the processing of relevant information had on the conviction of the participants in their doping-related attitudes. Participants were soccer coaches who received a written proposal (i.e., a persuasive message) against (or in favor of) the legalization of several banned substances and doping behaviors. Moreover, the extent of deliberative thinking (i.e., the elaboration likelihood, high vs. low) was manipulated between participants. Finally, attitudes toward the legalization and conviction in those attitudes were assessed as dependent variables. As predicted, results showed attitudes were only affected by the direction of message ( η 2 = .064); thus, coaches who received the message against the legalization showed attitudes more unfavorable than coaches who received the message in favor of the legalization. However, as expected, conviction was only in function of the elaboration ( η 2 = .050). Thus, coaches who were under a high elaboration condition showed more conviction in their attitudes than coaches who were under a low elaboration condition. In this paper, we discuss the importance of conviction to the understanding and the prediction of the impact of attitudes on subsequent thinking and behavior regarding doping in coaches and athletes

ste estudo analisou o efeito que o pensamento deliberativo envolvido no processamento de informação relevante produziu sobre a convicçãodos participantes nas suas atitudes relacionadas com o doping. Os participantes foram treinadores de futebol que receberam por escrito uma proposta(i.e., uma mensagem persuasiva) contra (ou a favor) da legalização de algumas substâncias e comportamentos considerados como doping na actualidade.Por seu turno, a quantidade de pensamento deliberativo (i.e., a probabilidade de elaboração, Alta vs. Baixa) foi manipulada entre os participantes. Porúltimo, as atitudes face à proposta de legalização e a convicção nessas atitudes foram medidas como variáveis dependentes. Como foi hipotetizado, osresultados mostram que as atitudes foram significativamente influídas apenas pela direcção da mensagem persuasiva (η2= .064); de tal forma que ostreinadores que receberam a mensagem contra a legalização revelaram atitudes mais desfavoráveis que os que receberam a mensagem a favor. Contudo,como esperado, a convicção nas atitudes variaram apenas em função da elaboração (η2 = .050). Assim, os treinadores da condição de alta probabilidadede elaboração revelaram mais convicção nas suas atitudes que os da condição de baixa probabilidade de elaboração. Neste artigo, discutimos a importânciadesta convicção para compreender e prever melhor o impacto que as atitudes têm sobre os consequentes modos de pensar e actuar dos treinadores eatletas a respeito do doping

La advertencia del intento persuasivo en contextos publicitarios / Forewarning of the Persuasive Attempt in Advertising Contexts

Cuando las personas saben que se las está intentando convencer tienden a resistirse, ya que en general no queremos que nos manipulen. Asimismo, los mensajes ambiguos son menos persuasivos que los mensajes claros y ordenados, entre otras razones, porque las personas prefieren los estímulos fáciles de procesar. En la presente investigación se propone que estas dos variables (advertencia del intento persuasivo y ambigüedad del mensaje) pueden resultar paradójicamente persuasivas cuando se utilizan conjuntamente. Los participantes del estudio recibieron un mensaje ordenado (baja ambigüedad) o desordenado (alta ambigüedad) que fue presentado como un anuncio publicitario o una narración no comercial. Tal y como se esperaba, se encontró que el mensaje ambiguo resultó más persuasivo cuando fue presentado como un anuncio (contexto publicitario) que cuando fue presentado en un contexto meramente narrativo. Paradójicamente, saber que un anuncio publicitario constituye un intento por convencer puede hacer que los pensamientos que se generen para interpretarlo sean de valencia positiva (como los argumentos que supuestamente contiene el mensaje), dando lugar a un mayor cambio de actitudes

Forewarning of a persuasive attempt has been found to reduce persuasion because people tend to resist being manipulated. Likewise, messages that are high in ambiguity tend to be less persuasive than messages that are clear, among other reasons, because people prefer information that is easy to be processed. The present research postulates that these two variables (persuasive attempt forewarning and message ambiguity) can result paradoxically persuasive when combined together. Participants of the present experiment received a message composed by images that were presented in a logic (low ambiguity) or in a random order (high ambiguity).Furthermore, the message was said to be a commercial advertisement(with persuasive attempt) or a neutral narrative (without persuasive attempt).As predicted, it was found that the highly ambiguous message was more persuasive when it was presented as an advertisement (with persuasive attempt) rather than as a narrative context (without persuasive attempt).Knowing that the message constitutes a persuasive attempt (ad)could bias the generation of thoughts to interpret that information in a positive manner (consonant with the direction of the arguments supposedly contained in the ad), leading to more attitude change

Changing doping-related attitudes in soccer players: how can we get stable and persistent changes?

The aim of this experiment was to analyse the consequences of changing attitudes related to doping through thoughtful versus non-thoughtful processes. Participants were young soccer players. They received a persuasive message either against or in favour of the legalisation of several doping behaviours in soccer (e.g., the use of anabolic androgenic steroid - AAS), and participants' level of elaboration (i.e., deliberative thinking) was manipulated in two different experimental (high vs. low) conditions. Attitudes towards the legalisation proposal were assessed immediately following the message and one week later. Results showed attitude change was a function of message direction and was relatively equivalent for both high and low elaboration participants immediately after reading the message. That is, those who received the message against legalisation showed significantly more unfavourable attitudes towards the proposal than did those who received the message in favour of legalisation regardless of the extent of elaboration. However, attitude change was found to be persistent only for high elaboration participants one week after message exposure. In the present paper, we discuss implications of changing attitudes related to doping depending on whether the change occurred through psychological processes that require either extensive or small amounts of deliberative thinking and elaboration.